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The Philosophic Naturalist Principia Mathematica, which is Latin for "mathematical principles of natural philosophy", often Principia or Principia Mathematica for short, is a three-volume work by Isaac Newton first published on 5 July 1687. Newton also published two further editions, the second in 1713, and the third in 1726. The Principia contains the statement of Newton's laws of motion forming the foundation of classical mechanics, as well as his law of universal gravitation and a derivation of Kepler's laws for the motion of the planets (which were first obtained empirically). The Principia is "justly regarded as one of the most important works in the history of science."

In formulating his physical theories, Newton had developed a field of mathematics now known as calculus. However, the language of calculus as we know it was largely absent from the Principia. Instead, Newton cast the majority of his proofs in geometric form, although with many calculus-like arguments based on limits of vanishing small geometric quantities.

In a supplement to the Principia, entitled General Scholium, Newton expressed his famous Hypotheses non fingo ("I feign no hypotheses" or "I make no guesses").

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Credit: 池田正樹 (talk)masaki ikeda

In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube (in North America), thermionic valve, or valve (elsewhere, especially in Britain) is a device used to amplify, switch, otherwise modify, or create an electrical signal by controlling the movement of electrons in a low-pressure space.

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